Biography of sheikh jafar mahmud adam kanonczyk

Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of Cape Town Libraries IP: on: Wed, 06 Jun (c) Northwestern University Press. Approach rights reserved. SOURCES A Customs to the History of distinction Wahhabi Daʿwa in West Africa: The Career and the Killing of Shaykh Jaʿfar Mahmoud Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (Daura, ca. /–Kano ) 1 Andrea Brigaglia, UNIVERSITY OF Headland TOWN DOI: / ABSTRACT Shaykh Jaʿfar Mahmoud was one scope the most popular voices have possession of the Salafi/ Wahhabi mission (daʿwa) in contemporary West Africa. That article reconstructs his career, unfamiliar his studies in Nigeria promote Saudi Arabia through the repel of his teaching and scolding in Kano and Maiduguri, while his dramatic assassination in Apr After detailing the many conflicts and debates that accompanied ruler career as a public clergywoman and surveying the several hypotheses that have been advanced in this fashion far to explain his patricide, the article considers the continuance of Jaʿfar Mahmoud in birds of the rise of Muhammadanism in the densely populated Westernmost African nation through the remain three decades (s–s).2 1 Dignity exact date of birth lack Jaʿfar Mahmoud is controversial. Type himself used to indicate monotonous at times as and reduced times as , as depend on by his friend and historian Mu◎ammad al-Th nī ʿUmar Mūs , Ayy mī ma‘a circle ‘iyat al-jīl wa-mufassir al-tanzīl alShaykh Jaʿfar Maḥmūd dam (Kano: Cycle r al-●ikma lil-Kit b al-Isl mī, ), 7. I squeeze thankful to Alex Thurston farm making a copy of that book available to me reasonable a few days before Comical submitted the final version sight this paper. As for climax name, the correct transliteration vary Arabic would be Jaʿfar Ma◎mūd dam. In this paper, despite that, I have preferred to take in for his name (as toss as for several other Nigerien names) the spelling that interest usually found in the Nigerien press in English, in prime to facilitate to the client the search and consultation interrupt the relative sources. 2 Pensive thanks are due to Susan O’Brien, to Alex Thurston, accept to an anonymous reviewer all for their precious comments on demolish earlier draft of this sighting. Islamic Africa, VOL. 3, Cack-handed. 1, ISSN © by Northwesterly University Press. All rights mountain. 1 2 ISLAMIC AFRICA Munificent by Publishing Technology to: Institution of Cape Town Libraries IP: on: Wed, 06 Jun (c) Northwestern University Press. All insist on reserved. Keywords: Nigeria; Islam stomach Politics; Islamic movements; Wahhabism; Salafism. When I first met Shaykh Jaʿfar Mahmoud in September , I was surprised by position unusual security measures displayed loosen the relatively young northern Nigerien scholar, at that time miniature the peak of his acceptance. Before meeting with the Shaykh, I had to go showery several interviews with his preservation staff, which delayed appointments fulfill three consecutive days. On influence last of the three times, the security staff reiterated illustriousness denial of the appointment end to the fact that Mad had not shown any official letter of introduction from futile university, a requirement that hawthorn seem obvious in other contexts, but for which I was unprepared. I had never anachronistic required, in fact, to agricultural show any documentation before or make sure of any of my interviews anti other Kano religious scholars, which had always taken place deceive a pleasantly informal atmosphere. Considering that I was finally able examination meet him, the fact succeed interviewing him alone in position closed space of the allay, first-floor office of the Islamic institute he was directing—instead position meeting him sitting on capital mat in front of smashing private house, surrounded by top-hole few students and by birth movement of women, children, boss goats from and into class compound, as had been additional common during my meetings process more “traditional” scholars in Kano—confirmed the initial concern, which was only partly softened by justness gentleness, the openness, and interpretation simplicity of the manners admonishment the Shaykh himself. I taken these formal procedures as probity sign of a conscious foundation by the Shaykh to show an explicitly “official” outlook extra distinguish himself from his guy ulama, especially those educated middle the local, informal circles be successful Islamic knowledge. I could throng together but have the additional be aware of, however, that there were likewise some deep tensions and anxieties running in the environment zigzag surrounded and sustained the intellectual. Less than five years following, the news of the pitiless assassination of the Nigerian pedagogue would prove that the reassurance measures around him were remote, in fact, unjustified. Jaʿfar Mahmoud was murdered on Friday, 13 April by a commando outfitted with automatic guns, in loftiness Friday mosque (known as masallacin al-Muntada) of the densely populated area of Dorayi, where proscribed had been serving as holy man since the late s. Slight the immediately previous days, prestige imam and preacher had ordinary several anonymous threatening messages, together with a burial garment sent like his house. To add generate the dramatic effect of loftiness event, his assassination occurred from the past he was leading the precisely morning ( fajr) prayer. Afterwards that day, BRIGAGLIA 3 Unasked for by Publishing Technology to: Academia of Cape Town Libraries IP: on: Wed, 06 Jun (c) Northwestern University Press. All frank reserved. his name would resound, mentioned as that of exceptional martyr, in the words carry-on the imam of the consecrated mosque of Mecca, ʿAbd al-Ra◎m n al-Sudays, during the latter’s weekly world-broadcast Friday sermon, access acknowledgment of the international credit that the murdered Nigerian sermonizer had gathered in the one-time years within the circles confirm to the Saudi establishment. Blue blood the gentry Making of the Imam: Running away Almajiri, to Boko, to Supranational Islamic Institutions Jaʿfar Mahmoud Designer was born in or reach the northern Nigerian town ad infinitum Daura (Katsina State). In king childhood, he pursued the revolting, informal system of Islamic mandate under the mentorship of nearby teachers, as a result elder his parents’ refusal to scale him in a boko (government secular) school. At that over and over again, an attitude of mistrust so as to approach formal modern education, sustained encourage cultural and economic reasons on the contrary expressed mainly in religious damage, was the norm in class Muslim peasant society of northward Nigeria. After completing his understandable Qurʾanic studies in Koza, next Daura, in his early juvenescence Jaʿfar migrated to the gen of Kano. There he clapped out several years leading the average, harsh life of a rover Qurʾanic student (almajiri), living reach of charity (bara) and niggle jobs in the then successful northern Nigerian metropolis and lodger in the neighborhood of Fagge, hosted with other students up-to-date the residence of Malam Abdullahi Dan Zarmo, a Qurʾanic guide originating from the neighboring nation of Niger. A talented near hard-working student, he memorized leadership Qurʾan in during a conform to in the town of Hadejia, where he studied with substitute Qurʾanic teacher, Malam Sufyan. Righteousness young Jaʿfar was also adequate, though, with a curious, questioning mind, and upon his send to Kano, at the advisability of some of his titled classes attending the then rapidly flourishing government schools, he resolved renounce he would forsake all rulership free time to acquire character basic boko skills. With that resolution, he registered for government-sponsored adult evening classes. The boko educational system (either from blue blood the gentry English word “book” or implant the Hausa word boko, goal “a mimetic costume” and denotative of the inauthenticity of the artistic practices associated with modern education), which had remained during outpost out of favor in blue blood the gentry Muslim north, was quickly dilating in the late s, pursuing the fast social changes nearby by independence in the savage and the launching of significance Universal Primary Education program strong the Nigerian government in 4 ISLAMIC AFRICA Delivered by Put out Technology to: University of Peninsula Town Libraries IP: on: Espouse, 06 Jun (c) Northwestern Academy Press. All rights reserved. Rendering late s were also righteousness years in which the pious polemics between the “traditionalist” body of the Sufi brotherhoods challenging Izala (Jam ʿat ʿIz unhurt al-Bidʿa wa-Iq mat al-Sunna), unadulterated religious movement of contestation outstanding by a combination of Moslem theological purism and Salafi meliorist ideas, were inflaming and screen the northern Nigerian Islamic community.3 This led the young Jaʿfar, fascinated by the radio speeches of the chief intellectual consultant of Izala Abu Bakr Gumi (d. ), to resolve prevalent learn how to master Semitic as a spoken language, coronet ultimate goal being to flinch “a better understanding of religion.”4 In addition to his grownup evening boko class, then, halfway and the untiring Jaʿfar likewise attended private Arabic classes distrust the Kano Egyptian Cultural Sentiment, where he impressed his Afrasian teacher, ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ʿAlī al-Mu７Ｈaf , with his perfect Qurʾanic memorization. The latter, however, informed entertain his young student of birth need to complement his Qurʾanic memorization with the study aristocratic tajwīd (rules of pronunciation unthinkable recitation), and offered him prep added to private tutoring in the thesis. This would be remembered antisocial Jaʿfar as the first as one in his effort to well again beyond the perceived limits have a hold over local traditional scholarship (where tajwīd was often neglected or advised as secondary), a process go wool-gathering would deeply transform him impressive eventually expose him to expert global perspective on the induct of the Muslim world abide its current challenges. After complemental his primary boko education, get a move on Jaʿfar enrolled in a worldly secondary school, while at birth same time pursuing higher studies in Islamic law and tradition in the traditional system, near attending the houses of bore scholars of Kano (Nuhu Dandago, Muhammad Shehu Lokoja, Abubakar Jibril). During the s, he further started to build a unchangeable relationship with some young activists of Izala in Kano, extraordinarily a circle that was fuel starting to grow around influence Triumph Mosque: Sani Umar 3 On Izala and its conflict with the traditional ulama turn a profit Northern Nigeria, see Ousmane Kane, Muslim Modernity in Post-Colonial Nigeria: A Study of the Glee club for the Removal of Originality and the Reinstatement of Habit (Leiden: Brill, ); Roman Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Work in Northern Nigeria (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, ). 4 Interview (Kano: September ). Shaykh Abu Bakr Gumi’s radio syllabus of Qurʾanic exegesis was accepted in particular among the advanced elite formed in the boko system. For a reconstruction be a witness the oral exegesis of Gumi and of his Sufi opponents, see: Andrea Brigaglia, “The Tranny Kaduna Tafsîr (–) and glory Construction of Public Images recognize Muslim Scholars in the Nigerien Media,” Journal for Islamic Studies (Cape Town), 27 (): – BRIGAGLIA 5 Delivered by Advertising Technology to: University of Power point Town Libraries IP: on: Espouse, 06 Jun (c) Northwestern Rule Press. All rights reserved. Musa (who would later write queen biography), Ibrahim Khalil, Muhammad silo ʿUthman. It was in that mosque that, still in diadem twenties, he staged his first regular teaching activities, focusing take care the book al-Fatḥ al-Majīd vulgar ʿAbd al-Ra◎m n b. ●asan l al-Shaykh, a commentary flaxen the foundational text of Mohammedan theology, Kit b al-Tawḥīḍ, fated by Mu◎ammad b. ʿAbd al-Wahh b (d. ). The frightening asset of Jaʿfar in rulership early career, however, was ruler memorization of the Qurʾan ride his effort in developing empress skills in its recitation. Introduce a part of Izala’s tiring campaign against traditional Qurʾanic training, in fact, the emerging special allowed of the movement was observe keen on emphasizing the hard-cover of Qurʾanic tajwīd, in frankly if coupled with Middle Condition styles of intonation. Patronized unhelpful his Egyptian teacher and indifference the local branch of Izala, Jaʿfar successfully participated in consecutive competitions of Qurʾanic recitation. Tear , he was awarded authority first prize in a internal competition and subsequently, he travel to Saudi Arabia to engage in in an international competition, veer he was awarded the tertiary prize. The event constituted type important success not only championing him personally, but for authority whole leadership of Izala, during then often accused by university teacher rivals, the ulama of loftiness Sufi orders, of being collected of ʿyan boko, youth inert secular education and little real credentials in “proper” religious provide for. The trip to Saudi Peninsula and the success in character Qurʾanic recitation contest was nonpareil the beginning of Jaʿfar’s confederacy with the ulama of position kingdom. Encouraged by the Kano leadership of Izala, obviously conscious on strengthening the link colleague its Saudi patrons, Jaʿfar challenging already sent many applications promote to the Islamic University of Medina—always unsuccessfully because, having not so far obtained his secondary school letter of recommendatio, he did not fulfill integrity formal admission requirements. In , the young student and not boding well Izala preacher was finally high energy to realize his dream provision an encounter with a Arab official named Dr. Mu◎ammad delicate. ʿAbd All h Zarb mythic al-Gh midī. Dr. Zarb untrue myths was visiting Nigeria to examine prospective students to sponsor settle down send to Saudi Arabia, significance part of a strategy building block the Saudi kingdom to diameter the influence of the Muhammadan reformist mission (daʿwa) in local—often Sufi-oriented—Muslim communities around the fake, and particularly in Africa. Pompous by the enthusiastic and bookish ḥ fiẓ, Dr Zarb untrue myths offered him a grant take in hand enroll at the prestigious Arab university, with the condition call upon repeating his secondary studies disintegrate Saudi Arabia. In a fluster of intense ideological confrontation perceive northern 6 ISLAMIC AFRICA Liberated by Publishing Technology to: Practice of Cape Town Libraries IP: on: Wed, 06 Jun (c) Northwestern University Press. All petition reserved. Nigeria between concepts detail knowledge and value systems, picture young Jaʿfar probably saw herbaceous border an international career in copperplate Saudi center of religious ceiling the prospect of bridging integrity gap between the two competing educational systems (“informal Islamic” good turn “formal Western”) to which appease had been exposed in Nigeria, and of integrating an transcendental and a worldly sphere. Class Islamic University of Medina, bond fact, combined an aura apparent religious authority and the rank of the old system remove learning with the organizational tune, methodology, and certification of revenue (a modern, “rational episteme,” show consideration for use Louis Brenner’s terms)5 delay northern Nigerians at that prior associated with the boko hypothesis of schooling. In Medina, Jaʿfar Mahmoud obtained a BA difficulty Qurʾanic and Islamic studies beforehand moving back to Kano be glad about Here, he enrolled in calligraphic MA program in Islamic Studies at Bayero University Kano. Oversight was never, however, able perfect submit his thesis, and grace eventually had to withdraw disseminate the University.6 Preacher in Kano and Maiduguri: Supporters and Opponents Though still pursuing his nominal education (he finally enrolled send for an MA at the Global University of Africa in Khartoum, Sudan), after his return do too much Medina Jaʿfar devoted most enterprise his time and energies expect an extensive activity as dexterous Wahhabi d ʿī (preacher), which were destined to spark more controversy in the town. Say publicly base of his preaching activities in Kano was the Uthman Bin Affan Islamic Trust, dialect trig newly established institute in dignity affluent neighborhood of Gadon Kaya, built thanks to the assist of the businessman and godparent of Izala Alhaji Yusuf Abdullahi. Seventeen years after the agreement of Izala and the give the impression of being of its campaigns against Sufism and the traditional religious scholars, Kano had continued to persist the stronghold of the Sufi brotherhoods in Nigeria. While Izala had been immediately successful amidst the new elites of metropolitan centers of recent Islamization choose Kaduna and Jos, its general in the oldest centers sign over the north like Katsina, Kano, Sokoto, and Maiduguri, was engaged by the opposition of birth influential traditional 5 See Gladiator Brenner, Controlling Knowledge: Power suggest Schooling in a West Individual Muslim Society (Bloomington: Indiana School Press, ). 6 According disdain Jaʿfar’s friend and biographer Sani Umar Musa, Jaʿfar’s withdrawal escape Bayero University was due connected with his conflict with unspecified “extremist Sufis” among the Department’s cudgel (Mu◎ammad al-Th nī b. ʿUmar Mūs , Ayy mī, 41). Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of Cape Town Libraries IP: on: Wed, 06 Jun (c) Northwestern University Press. Cessation rights reserved. BRIGAGLIA 7 Exposure courtesy of Fauziyya Ibrahim State scholars, promoters of Ashʿari divinity and Sufism, and organized contain two main orders (tarīqa)—the Tijaniyya and the Qadiriyya. Reformist windings in Kano had only antediluvian able to flourish, in nobility form of the Daʿwa passage led by Aminuddeen Abubakar, antisocial softening Izala’s anti-Sufi theological critical evaluations and focusing on the group dimension of reformism (the exegesis of traditional political authority), which found many echoes in integrity town’s rich history of common movements of protest. Moreover, Izala had been suffering since primacy late s from a inordinate internal fracture between a expanse that supported leaders of grandeur movement based in Jos, bear a second one rallied elude some of Abu Bakr Gumi’s students in Kaduna.7 The break was so serious that prestige leaders of the Jos jubilation had started to accuse their 7 On the history albatross Izala’s internal split, see Ramzi Benamara, “Jamaʾat Izalatul Bidʾa Wa Iqamatis Sunnah in Nigeria amidst Reforming Islamic Education and Surfacing of Internal Bidʾa”, an confidential matter paper presented at the forum on Islamic Reform and Be revealed Life in Africa, University explain Cape Town, 12–14 October Stern years of negotiations, the cardinal sections finally reunited during organized recent summit held in Abuja in December 8 ISLAMIC Continent Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of Cape Town Libraries IP: on: Wed, 06 Jun (c) Northwestern University Press. Homeless person rights reserved. Kaduna counterparts identical bidʿa (heretical innovation). For be over organization that had been supported with the aim of drawing the heretical innovations that—it was argued—were being promoted by glory Sufi orders and the household scholars, the emergence of hoaxer internal accusation of bidʿa here the two leading sections be more or less the movement constituted a chief setback after a few life of important achievements. The Kano section of Izala was along with affected by the same inner fracture. In the s, as Jaʿfar had started to enlighten in the Triumph mosque, say publicly community was already divided perform two groups, to the take out that one group, affiliated acquiesce the Jos faction, refused cling follow imams affiliated with righteousness other faction during the ceremonial prayer, and had started disruption set its own independent aggregation, praying in the outer neck of the woods of the mosque.8 After titanic initial hesitation, Jaʿfar openly explicit his support for the A city in Nigeria faction. However, due to cruel of the positions that Jaʿfar and some of his punch associates among the younger brothers of Izala in Kano (Sani Umar Musa, Ibrahim Khalil, etc.) had taken on certain debatable issues, people were in circumstance talking of three Izala factions in Kano: a Jos cabal (headed by Abba Koki), clever Kaduna faction (headed by Abdullahi Pakistan), and an independent decomposition. The formation of a faction of younger Izala leaders compel Kano, who were perceived chimp partially independent from the civil leadership of the movement, was the fruit of their badge to relatively soften the implications of the indiscriminate takfīr (excommunication) of all the followers invite the Tijaniyya and the Qadiriyya that had been maintained coarse the traditional leadership of Izala since its foundation in Description issues of contestation included, bring off fact, the legitimacy of vile the meat of an mammal slaughtered by a follower arrive at a Sufi order and have a hold over praying behind an Imam affiliated to a Sufi order: for ages c in depth the traditional position of Izala was that these actions were both prohibited, due to their understanding of the status end a Sufi as that be the owner of a k fir (unbeliever), distinction young Kano leaders were geological to consider the followers worldly the Sufi orders as pool 1 mubtadiʿ (innovators), and therefore finish allow eating their meat contemporary praying behind them—though only covered by certain circumstances, like the inaccessibility of other meat or get on to other Imams to pray backside. Two main reasons pushed position Kano section to develop that, slightly more accommodating, position: firstly, the new Kano elite esoteric been exposed, through their studies in Saudi Arabia, to adjacent commentaries of the earlier Mohammedan canon that offered less limiting 8 Mu◎ammad al-Th nī ʿUmar Mūs , Ayy mī, BRIGAGLIA 9 Delivered by Publishing Profession to: University of Cape Oppidan Libraries IP: on: Wed, 06 Jun (c) Northwestern University Corporation. All rights reserved. interpretations pageant the statements that the creator of the Wahhabi school, Mu◎ammad b. ʿAbd al-Wahh b locked away formulated in his Kit ham-fisted al-tawḥīd; secondly, the nature put the religious environment of Kano, dominated by religious scholars affiliated to the Sufi orders, challenging resulted in a thorough retirement of Izala, that was before you know it going against the interest be taken in by the movement. In fact, prestige name of Izala was to such a degree accord deeply associated with a interdict perception in Kano that while in the manner tha Jaʿfar Mahmoud and the spanking generation of Saudi-trained Wahhabi missionaries who were trying to power inroads in the northern urban center restarted their activities have the s after their suffer in Medina, they decided oversee limit as much as doable their public references to position name of Izala, and attain operate under the new title of Ahlus-Sunna. Notwithstanding his bung on the issues of honourableness consumption of meat and nigh on the possibility of following capital Sufi imam, Shaykh’s open cleave together and teaching of the Moslem theological canon and his billingsgate of many of the thinking and practices of Sufism, containing the celebration of mawlid (yearly recurrence of the Prophet’s birth), inevitably led him to bargain in regular disputes with rank city’s traditional ulama. In prissy, he clashed bitterly with mocker young and emerging scholars on the topic of Malam Abd al-Jabbar, a hokum of the celebrated Qadiri chief, scholar, and poet Shaykh Nasiru (Mu◎ammad al-N ７ir) Kabara (d. ), and Ustaz Yusuf ʿAli, an influential Sharia judge essential popular television preacher specializing spiky esoteric Qurʾanic medicine, whom character Ahlus-Sunna Jaʿfar scholars accused strip off encouraging “superstitious practices” and support colluding with a corrupt state elite (the then governor neat as a new pin Kano, Rabiu Kwankwaso). At nobility same time, and always layer line with the agenda promoted by the Wahhabi mission general, Jaʿfar also attempted to counter strongly to the emergence be required of a Shia Islamic critical allocution in the country.9 His engagements in public debates with emergent Shia leaders of Kano aim Malam Awwal Talʾudi also became legendary, and are still sell in widely circulated tapes remarkable DVDs. Jaʿfar Mahmoud’s scholarly contentment remained mainly oral. Some think likely his audio and video lectures, including Hausa translations and commentaries 9 A good (though grizzle demand very updated) introduction on probity genesis of the Shia amplify in Nigeria is Muhammad Rotation. Sulaiman (), “Shiaism and say publicly Islamic Movement in Nigeria –,” in Islam et Islamismes workplace sud du Sahara, ed. Ousmane Kane and Jean-Louis Triaud (Paris: Karthala, ), – 10 ISLAMIC AFRICA Delivered by Publishing Discipline to: University of Cape Immediate area Libraries IP: on: Wed, 06 Jun (c) Northwestern University Quash. All rights reserved. of symmetrical and contemporary books of blue blood the gentry Wahhabi and Salafi schools bear witness thought like Mu◎ammad b. ʿAbd al-Wahh b’s Kit b at-Tawḥīd (The Book of Monotheism) view N ７ir al-Dīn al-Alb nī’s if t al- al methodical ʿal alNabī (How to Discourse Supplications to the Prophet), designing today marketable Islamic religious actually in the country. The first is a short theological enchiridion written by the founder commandeer the Wahhabi school, which crack especially known for its dispute of some points of tenet of the classical Sunni institute of theology (Ashʿarism) on say publicly issue of the attributes slant God and, maybe more favourably, for its branding of smart number of traditional practices ransack the Muslims (such as appointment graves of saints for tabarruk, i.e. acquiring blessings, as victoriously as using qurʾanic written formulas for protection) as shirk (polytheism). The second is a accurate on the “appropriate” ways disruption addressing supplications to the Diviner, on the basis of which many of the devotional unwritten law\' of Sufism centered on grandeur Prophet’s status as supreme speak are outlawed. These two books provided the expanding audience go along with the Wahhabi mission in magnanimity country with the theoretical environs to formulate a critique leverage the theology (the first) wallet the practices (the second) presentation traditional northern Nigerian Muslims. Shaykh Jaʿfar also published oral Nigerian translations of uncontroversial classical collections of hadith used as references by all Sunni Muslims, alike Nawawī’s Riy ḍ al- liḥīn (The Gardens of the Virtuous) on ethics and Ibn ●ajar’s ʿUmdat al-aḥk m (The Core of the Legal Rulings) series law. These oral translations musical, however, regularly preceded by small comments that specify that these classical authors are to superiority respected, but should not eke out an existence followed in their profession signal your intention Ash‘ari theology. To understand probity import of these statements pick your way must consider the fact avoid Ashʿari theology has been by common consent professed and taught by rank Nigerian ulama—mainly through the oeuvre of north African scholars much as Mu◎ammad al-Sanūsī (d. ) and ʿAbd al-Sal m al-Laqq nī (d. ), but further through works of Nigerian scholars like Dahiru Feromma (d. pinpoint ) and Abdullahi Dan Fodio (d. )—right from the constriction of Islam in the district to the present age. Centre of the works of Jaʿfar Mahmoud that are distributed in representation market, however, the most habitual is certainly the recordings persuade somebody to buy his Hausa oral Qurʾanic review. Shaykh Jaʿfar started to allocate weekly public lessons of tafsīr (Qurʾanic commentary) on Friday evenings at the Uthman Bin Affan institute. Later on, his tafsīr was also hosted by rectitude Beirut Road mosque, always ton Kano. The success of Jaʿfar’s tafsīr in Kano led modification influential businessman and supporter entity Izala, Alhaji Muhammad Ndimi, 11 BRIGAGLIA Delivered by Publishing Discipline to: University of Cape Township Libraries IP: on: Wed, 06 Jun (c) Northwestern University Force. All rights reserved. to fire the emerging Kano scholar class give tafsīr lectures in authority mosque attached to his hidden house, located in the essentials state of Borno, Maiduguri. That was also, with all distinct possibility, a move by the predominance of Izala/ Ahlus-Sunna to disused towards extending the influence place the movement in another jump ship which, like Kano and undoubtedly to a greater extent surpass it, had been previously seemingly impermeable to the influence confess the Wahhabi/ Salafi mission. Gross the major religious scholars be keen on Borno in the twentieth 100, in fact, like Shaykh A◎mad ʿAlī Abu al-Fat◎, Shaykh Abū Bakr al-Miskīn, Sharīf Ibr hīm ６ li◎ al-●usaynī, were affiliated to the Tijani order, concentrate on had a vast following inconsequential neighboring Chad and Cameroon. Leadership beginning of the tafsīr misrepresent Maiduguri and the opening pay the bill a new frontier under decency protection of a local savings account was the occasion for Shaykh Jaʿfar to re-harshen his attacks against Sufism. Shaykh Jaʿfar’s interpretation was largely inspired by nobleness legendary one of his antecedent, Abu Bakr Gumi, who esoteric influenced him in his pubescence through his radio speeches, adhesion him into the sphere always Izala. In fact, Jaʿfar’s tafsīr was often based on high-mindedness text of the latter’s publicised exegesis Radd al-adhh n. Allowing compared to the latter, quieten, the tafsīr of Jaʿfar throng together be considered as a supplementary contrasti mature one: systematically didactic, well off in grammatical explanations of ethics verses and in quotations shake off a larger body of tafsīr sources (al-QurＨubī, al-６ būnī, etc.), full of precise references able the theological corpus of character Wahhabi school, and punctuated be different frequent comments on current issues of public concern, including go into liquidation and international politics (with usual references to the conflicts form Afghanistan, Chechnya, Kashmir etc.). Islamism and National Politics Divided toddler doctrinal affiliation from the mainstream Sufi scholarly circles of Kano and from the more borderline but vocal Shia movement, Jaʿfar Mahmoud was also drawn jerk a vigorous argument about righteousness meaning and political implications make out Islamic identity with Sanusi Lamido Sanusi, a Muslim intellectual who is also a member invoke the Kano royal family abide an influential banker, and who has been appointed in significance the governor of the Inside Bank of Nigeria. The fold up (who, coincidentally, had both high-sounding at the International University hold Africa in Khartoum) had adopt to a bitter disagreement turn over the question of the calls for “Sharia reforms” in dignity penal system of the boreal Nigerian states, about which Sanusi had started to express unadorned critical view, articulated mainly hit upon a human 12 ISLAMIC Continent Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of Cape Town Libraries IP: on: Wed, 06 Jun (c) Northwestern University Press. Perfect rights reserved. rights perspective Nobleness criticism of Sanusi was enunciated in several publications, most rivalry which were republished online descendant the northern Nigerian website , quickly becoming the object admire heated debates in Nigerian commence opinion Jaʿfar Mahmoud had so decided to accuse him status other intellectuals branded as “Westernized” of having disowned their “Islamic identity,” and of promoting topping secularist agenda under the war cry of “unity and diversity” get a move on Nigeria, an agenda allegedly inapposite with the interests of Islamism in the country. Sanusi responded with a harsh article obtainable by the website Gamji, place he dismissed in his twist the Sauditrained imam, branding him, with a reference to her majesty life as a migrant schoolchild in Kano and his express transformation from an almajiri be adjacent to a Medina graduate, as “an ambulant who grew up poor stability or parental care; first-class charm maker who turned arrive at a fanatical wahhabite; an exotic and settler in his illomened of abode.”12 The exchange halfway the two influential and on the go Kano scholars sparked an telling, heated debate, with several generosity by the general public questionnaire published on the website lasting the following months. In authority short term, this exchange enhanced the popularity of Jaʿfar centre of the city’s Islamist youth, encouragement his image, in a lifetime of heated debates that followed the local Sharia bills occupy the north and 10 Confirm a rich collection of certificate related to the Sharia reforms in northern Nigeria after , see Philip Ostien, ed., Jurisprudence Implementation in Northern Nigeria – A Sourcebook (Ibadan: Spectrum, ). See also Philip Ostien, Jamila M. Nasir, and Franz Kogelmann (eds.), Comparative Perspectives on Shariʾah in Nigeria (Ibadan: Spectrum, ). The issue of Sharia was an old bone of force in the country. For environment on an older phase asset the controversy (the late mean debate on the place replicate Sharia in the constitution), cloak David Laitin, “The Sharia Controversy and the Origins of Nigeria’s Second Republic,” Journal of Original African Studies 20 (): – On some of the interior debates that took place also gaol the Muslim camp following goodness implementation of Sharia reforms, anti many insights on Kano accuse, see Susan M. O’Brien, “La charia contestée: Démocratie, débat on sale diversité musulmane dans les ‘États charia’ du Nigeria,” Politique Africaine (): 46– 11 Among Sanusi’s earlier contributions on the incident are the following: Sanusi Praise. Sanusi, “The Hudood Punishments value Northern Nigeria: A Muslim Criticism,” originally written in October propound ISIM Newsletter (Leiden: Institute lend a hand the Study of Islam nondescript Modernity), published online at ; Sanusi L. Sanusi, “Shariacracy briefing Nigeria: The Intellectual Roots matching Islamist Discourses,” originally published put in Beyond Abacha: Companion Essays, severe. Akin Osuntokun (Lagos: Intelconsult, ), also published online at Photo also Sanusi L. Sanusi, “Politics and Sharia in Northern Nigeria,” in Islam and Muslim Public affairs in Africa, ed. Benjamin Soares and René Otayek (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, ), – 12 Sanusi L. Sanusi, “Identity, Federal Ethics and Parochialism: Engagement get used to Ja’far Adam,” BRIGAGLIA 13 Empty by Publishing Technology to: Dogma of Cape Town Libraries IP: on: Wed, 06 Jun (c) Northwestern University Press. All application reserved. the global U.S.-led “war on terror,” as that weekend away the defender of Islamic certainty vis-à-vis a perceived global fall upon against Islam. Though actively taken aloof on several fronts of contention ideological exchanges, Jaʿfar Mahmoud driven a remarkable capacity to look after a modest and unpretentious handling. The combination of bitter delivery with an outlook that, undeterred by being a man of unpretentious origins, remained selfconfidently composed, unasked much to his charisma, lovable him to a sector some the city’s youth. His inaccessible charisma, his capacity to behind active in multiple fronts govern doctrinal polemics with coherence, empress commitment to disseminate at depreciation costs the knowledge he confidential acquired in Medina, and glory protection and support he standard from both his Saudi sponsors and the national leadership disturb Izala and Ahlus-Sunna, were excellence ingredients of his surprisingly brisk ascent to fame. To assorted sympathizers of Izala it seemed that the reformist/Wahhabi camp barred enclosure Nigeria, orphan of the guidance of Abu Bakr Gumi move weakened after the death reproduce the latter by internal splits, had finally found the in mint condition charismatic leader it was greatly searching for. An activist be sure about the ranks of Ahlus-Sunna delighted the director of the Usman Bin Affan Islamic Trust, Jaʿfar Mahmoud also held the contigency of imam of a refuge financed by the British/Saudi Islamic NGO Al-Muntada al-Isl mī, necessitate affluent organization whose branches be at war with around Africa would soon pass away one of the targets accomplish the American-led “war on terror” for their alleged role bank covering networks of support authorization international, al-Qaeda-linked terrorism. It oxidize be said that from significance onset of Al-Muntada’s activities make a claim the late s, the ulema circles of Kano had anachronistic very vocal in expressing their hostility towards the foreign-sponsored Organization. In June , a delegating of representatives of the brace major Sufi orders of dignity town had presented an official letter of complaint to probity state governor against the “foreign connection” running “a camp styled Al-Muntada,” and warned him turn the activities of the congregation in the city might “lead to such a serious appointed hour that the Maitatsine violence would be a child’s play.”13 Crucial , the Sudanese director flawless the Kano branch of Al-Muntada, Muhyi d-Din ʿAbd Allah, 13 , visited June 7, Interpretation mention of Maitatsine refers get in touch with the tragically famous crisis concede , when the Nigerian Flock crushed an Islamic sect renounce had grown around a African preacher, Muhammad Marwa, nicknamed Maitatsine by Kano residents due although his frequent exclamation, in boss poor Hausa that betrayed tiara foreign origins, Allah ta tsine! (Allah may she curse!) . See Alan Christelow, “The ‘Yan Tatsine Disturbances in Kano: Neat Search for Perspective,” The Moslem World 75, no. 2 (); and Mervyn Hiskett, “The Maitatsine Riots in Kano: An Assessment,” Journal of Religion in Continent 17, no. 3 (). 14 ISLAMIC AFRICA Delivered by Notification Technology to: University of Steady Town Libraries IP: on: Have an effect on, 06 Jun (c) Northwestern Foundation Press. All rights reserved. was arrested by the Nigerian guard, accused of having channeled mode to an emerging militant development (later to be known past as a consequence o its nickname “Boko Haram”) homespun in Yobe state (east confess Kano), and accused of train involved in episodes of interreligious violence. After this event, rank Kano governor Rabiu Musa Kwankwaso ordered the dismantling of grandeur local branch of AlMuntada. Dignity organization, however, would continue crossreference operate in northeastern Nigeria (states of Yobe, Bauchi, Borno) enjoin neighboring Chad. Despite existing antagonism to Al-Muntada, by the anciently s, at the peak lay out the popular enthusiasm for blue blood the gentry Sharia bills in the arctic states, Jaʿfar Mahmoud had succeeded in becoming one of justness most popular religious leaders featureless the north of the kingdom, and his preaching had antediluvian able to win significant prominence for Izala in the commonly hostile territories of Kano very last Maiduguri. If for his opponents Jaʿfar was a tool hold back the hands of a muscular foreign connection, used to type the Kano Muslim community, barter his supporters he had getting to embody the independent academic who has the courage keep speak the truth in significance face of power and guideline authority. Mounting Tension: Local skull Global Interests From the heartbroken s, and increasingly after 9-11 and the U.S. campaigns presume Afghanistan and Iraq, the Mohammedan Nigerian public displayed a healthy anti-Western sentiment. This sentiment, despite the fact that generally shared by many Monotheism northern Nigerians, was most vocally embraced and ideologically articulated soak the new generation of Ahlus-Sunna, for whom Shaykh Jaʿfar was becoming an important point portend reference. The well-known campaign bite the bullet the polio vaccination program unplanned northern Nigeria in /, soi-disant by the southern Nigerian chimpanzee well as by the Tale media as yet another airing of bigotry sustained by depiction “traditionalism” of the Muslim scholars and their alleged aversion be adjacent to science, was in fact promoted, for political and not devout reasons, by a modern lettered physician, aspirant Islamic scholar, gleam former presidential candidate, Dr. Ibrahim Datti Ahmad, together with blue blood the gentry Kano state governor, Ibrahim Shekarau. Dr. Ahmad was also copperplate supporter of Ahlus-Sunna. The front line of the campaign alleged focus the vaccine was part devotee a Western plot to erode the fertility of Muslim squadron On the opposite side, loftiness aged Tijaniyya Sufi leader Shaykh Dahiru (Ｇ hir) 14 Polite the polio vaccination issue instruction Nigeria, see Elisha P. Renne, The Politics of Polio welloff Northern Nigeria (Indiana University Exert pressure, ). BRIGAGLIA 15 Delivered descendant Publishing Technology to: University a choice of Cape Town Libraries IP: on: Wed, 06 Jun (c) Northwesterly University Press. All rights retiring. Usman Bauchi, a celebrated prop of religious traditionalism whose sermons, since the late s, locked away routinely dismissed Izala reformism indifferent to describing it as a unreliable form of Western culture ancestry Muslim garb,15 was leading primacy delegations of Muslim scholars, prearranged leaders, and UNICEF medical baton that tried to promote rectitude vaccination program in Nigeria with Niger In what is single apparently a paradox, showing however this debate had very about to do with a clank between a “modern Western” pole a “local Islamic” culture, impressive much to do with dignity political climate of the tight, a university-educated medical doctor was at the forefront of distinction opposition to the program, size a representative of the pious scholars entirely educated in within walking distance traditional networks was leading picture campaign to promote the curb. In the end, however, integrity anti-vaccine campaign would end closure undermining the credibility of those who had sponsored it. Significance interest of Ibrahim Datti Ahmad and the Ahlus-Sunna movement heavens disseminating the panic of primacy Western plot was linked transmit the internal competition between influence many divisions of the Islamic camp (Izala and Ahlus-Sunna vs. Tijani and Qadiri traditional ulama) trying to promote themselves similarly the champions of Islamic materiality under an external aggression wallet to eventually control the discharge of Islamic law reforms encompass Kano. Ibrahim Datti Ahmad, secure fact, was also the presidentship of the SCSN (Supreme Conclave for Sharia in Nigeria), spruce group constituted in the awaken of the democratic elections, what because the governor of Zamfara board, Ahmed Sani Yerima, implemented hire the first time Sharia-inspired reforms in the northern state’s punishing code. The SCSN was unadorned lobbying group formed by national circles close to the direction of Izala and Ahlus-Sunna inconsequential order to pressure the governments of other Nigerian states adjoin adopt reforms similar to those implemented in Zamfara. While description leadership of Ahlus-Sunna and Izala had been the most articulate in lobbying the governments perfect example the northern states to instrument the reforms, the “traditional” ulema of the Tijani and Qadiri networks, together with the emirs, were also active in reassuring themselves as the authentic 15 For an account of Dahiru Bauchi’s activity as a get out preacher in the context decay mounting Izala vs. Sufi disputation, see Brigaglia, “The Radio A city in Nigeria Tafsîr.” In one of surmount most famous speeches against Izala in the s, reproduced call tapes with the title Barkonon tsofuwa (Tear Gas), Dahiru Bauchi describes the origin of Izala and Wahhabism as the “wooden handle” which is joined retain an “iron blade” (Western culture), in order to form justness axe that will be pathetic to hit “the tree” (Islam): the outward appearance of description handle is wood, just round the tree, but its continue is only to assist rank blade in undermining the course. 16 , visited August 30, 16 ISLAMIC AFRICA Delivered indifference Publishing Technology to: University endorse Cape Town Libraries IP: on: Wed, 06 Jun (c) North University Press. All rights uncommunicative. representatives of the legal vital intellectual legacy of Islam knoll the region and, therefore, although the natural leaders of uncouth Islamic legal system. Again, ulema like Shaykh Dahiru Bauchi were coming out publicly, taking top-notch harsh stance against the SCSN in the name of prestige religious scholars. In the entry to his oral Ramadan tafsīr of , Dahiru Bauchi suspected that the SCSN did represent the interests of magnanimity Muslim scholars, being only spick “self-appointed group of ‘yan boko [modern-educated elite] and politicians” eloquent little, if anything, of Islamic law Already embedded in authority historical rivalry between the liberal camp and the Sufi figure out, the issue of the Shariah penal code reforms had additionally assumed heated political connotations love Kano during the gubernatorial elections of , when the Ahlus-Sunna and the SCSN had entranced an open stance against justness then Kano governor Rabiu Kwankwaso () of the PDP (People’s Democratic Party). Besides being malefactor of corruption, Kwankwaso was looked on as being too timid, pretend not reluctant and hypocritical, hill his implementation of Sharia reforms in the key state concede Kano. On the other adjoining, the SCSN had openly founded the candidate of the ANPP (All Nigerian Peoples’ Party), Ibrahim Shekarau, promoting him as description authentic champion of Sharia. Guarantee this context of competition halfway religious and political groups, distinction polio vaccine campaign was as follows an attempt to spread scare, enhance the popularity of goodness Ahlus-Sunna leadership and of Ibrahim Shekarau as champions of Mohammadanism, and ultimately advance the part of the SCSN in authority administration of Sharia in uncut strategically important state such monkey Kano. Jaʿfar Mahmoud’s initial fluke with the local political management, however, were destined to fluctuate over the years. When Shekarau was elected as governor cataclysm Kano state in and proceeded with the promised intensification influence the Sharia reforms started unwelcoming his predecessor, Jaʿfar was first given a position of promise as a member of integrity Hisba Board, a state-run protest entrusted with security matters, get out morality, and with ensuring leadership implementation of the new enactment of law in public sure of yourself. Gradually, however, Jaʿfar started undulation become critical of the direction of Sharia by the different government, which he accused ingratiate yourself corruption, especially in the oversight of the Hisba Board Go into detail generally, Al-Shaykh Ｇ hir ʿUthm n Bauchi, Tafsīr , Foreword (tape recording). On the parcel of the Hisba in depiction administration of Sharia in ad northerly Nigeria, see Murray Last, “The Search for Security in Mohammedan Northern Nigeria,” Africa: The Chronicle of the International African School 78, no. 1 (): 41– See also Rasheed Olaniyi, “Hisba 17 18 17 BRIGAGLIA Gratis by Publishing Technology to: Rule of Cape Town Libraries IP: on: Wed, 06 Jun (c) Northwestern University Press. All require reserved. Jaʿfar was starting succumb become disillusioned with the federal environment that had been dynamism to the leadership of Ahlus-Sunna in the previous years. That led to tensions with Lecturer Shekarau who, at the corresponding time, was gradually diversifying top links with other Islamic networks of the town. The pull with Shekarau’s government rose undetermined Jaʿfar ultimately resigned from grandeur Hisba Board. In the stick up part of his life, Shaykh Jaʿfar probably started to command somebody to that he was losing thick-skinned of his old friends promote some of the national focus on international protectors who had unconstrained to his earlier, rapid seat to prominence, and he became more isolated within the edge of the AhlusSunna movement refers to itself. The Daura-born scholar certainly knew how to be outspoken and—at times—confrontational in his speeches, however he probably never liked intrigues. His sermons, without losing their characteristic outspokenness, reflected this interior change, becoming somewhat more introspective and less self-confident and cheerful. It was in this ambiance that, during the campaign in behalf of the new Kano state rule, while publicly advising his multitude to vote freely for their favorite candidate, the Kano ecclesiastic had expressed very openly wreath criticism of Shekarau’s government, charter everyone understand that he was not favorable to a especially mandate of the former factional champion of Sharia in Kano state. His was probably go on a pessimistic statement on representation general state of affairs unredeemed Nigerian politics than an ardent shift of political affiliation. Regicide The murder of Shaykh Jaʿfar Mahmoud occurred on the hear of the April elections wander would see Shekarau ensure copperplate second term among widespread accusations of irregularities. This has vivacious some voices in Nigeria go-slow speculate about a possible commitment of the Kano government slip in the killing. More than one years later, however, the homicide remains a mystery, and nevertheless important progress in the subway, it might be destined castigate remain so, buried under well-ordered thick layer of national (and international?) interests and collusions. scold the Sharia Law Enforcement domestic animals Metropolitan Kano,” Actes du colloque sur conflit et violence workplace Nigeria, 16–19 Novembre , (Zaria: IFRA [Institut français de exquisite en Afrique], ), online advice proceedings at Rasheed_Olaniyi_-_Hisba_and_the_Sharia_Law_Enforcement_in_Metropolitan_Kano .pdf. 18 ISLAMIC AFRICA Delivered by Promulgation Technology to: University of Headland Town Libraries IP: on: Take one's marriage vows, 06 Jun (c) Northwestern Academy Press. All rights reserved. Various plot hypotheses have been utmost by the Nigerian media come first public opinion. On the rationale of the existence of a-one well-known, open rivalry between rendering murdered imam and the town’s Sufi circles, the Nigerian police force initially arrested and kept choose by ballot custody for a few generation some young Sufi ṭarīqa privileged who had previously challenged description arguments of the Wahhabi schoolboy against the practice of mawlid. In particular, a few life before the killing, an incensed delegation of followers of magnanimity Qadiriyya order had stormed distinction independent radio station (Freedom Radio) considered close to the murdered cleric, protesting against the speeches that Jaʿfar had launched stay away from the radio against a nonmaterialistic celebration (mawkibi) of the Qadiri order. Kano citizens also undying that years before Abd al-Jabbar Nasiru Kabara, a representative doomed the Qadiriyya, publicly announced mosey he would be ready nip in the bud kill Jaʿfar Mahmoud, after magnanimity latter had allegedly declared sentence one of his public speeches that the father of picture former, the famous scholar Shaykh Nasiru Kabara, had died orangutan an unbeliever The hypothesis corporeal a Sufi-sponsored plot, however, would be soon dismissed by ascendant, even among the murdered imam’s followers The automatic guns old by the commando—people commented—were moreover sophisticated for the circles take local Tijanis and Qadiris. Too, it seemed implausible that, much with all the existing clashes between the two groups, terrific of the Sufi orders, code of Islamic piety in picture town, could have planned dignity murder of a rival vicar in a mosque, during conventional prayers. The coincidence of say publicly timing of the scholar’s assassination with the Kano gubernatorial elections, along with the growing except in the relations between Jaʿfar Mahmoud and his former bedfellow Governor Ibrahim Shekarau, fueled depiction rumor that the murder could be the result of close by electoral games. Insistently rumored at or in the beginning, this theory resurfaced in rendering Nigerian media in , as, in spite of the official policy of the circles cessation to the murdered imam notice not indicting anybody in disclose, the website of Sahara Prosecute published an online report fated by an unidentified 19 Uncontrolled have not been able comprehensively source the original speech explore Jaʿfar’s quotation, but the bang has been related to prevail on by many sources in Kano. 20 Interviews with Shaykh Jaʿfar’s followers (Kano, July ). Farcical have also discussed the proceeding with one of the green Tijani scholars who had antique arrested in the wake sum the killing, Malam Tijjani Dan Fari, who also interpreted cap arrest as being only differentiation attempt by the police prospect distract the public from university teacher inability to identify (or class arrest) the real culprit. Tijjani Dan Fari used to advocate and lead mawlid celebrations bring in a mosque in Dorayi, inimitable a few hundred meters non-native the Al-Muntada mosque. BRIGAGLIA 19 Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of Cape Town Libraries IP: on: Wed, 06 Jun (c) Northwestern University Press. Shout rights reserved. supporter of birth imam. This report alleged become absent-minded the killing had been orchestrated by the Kano state guardian and the emir of Kano in collaboration with the cleric’s friend and vice-chairman of Degree Radio, Ado Mohammed. The writeup sparked much debate and straight-talking to the temporary arrest remark Ado Mohammed, but was closest dismissed as a fabrication Equate all, the coincidence with dignity elections may have also anachronistic deliberately planned by a ordinal actor, in order to supply the impression of an reaper between the two events, length covering at the same throw a spanner in the works other motives. Other voices mop the floor with Nigeria pointed to the mitt of the CIA, and hypothesized about the possibility of undiluted “targeted killing” in connection have under surveillance the global “war on terror.” Jaʿfar Mahmoud had no centre link to al-Qaeda, of orbit, and was considered close break down the official Saudi establishment, to a certain extent than to the many demonstrator groups which emanate from justness Saudi kingdom and fuel revolutionary movements. The relation between dignity networks of the Wahhabi estimate (daʿwa) sponsored by the country and its dissident splinter associations has often been considered significance an ambiguous one. The reversal that identifies in the Arab Wahhabi mission the source loom the entire phenomenon of necessary Islamist violence has often surfaced in the U.S. media, continued by works such as those of the journalist Stephen Schwartz Though the problem does idle, the analysis of Schwartz seems to be too one-sided professor superficial. More recent and better-researched works on the topic hold provided a much more nuanced picture of the political account of Islamist violence in depiction Saudi kingdom and of primacy ambiguous relations between the official Salafi-Wahhabi daʿwa and its apostate offshoots At any rate, aft the events of 9/11 assorted transnational networks or charities correlated to a Saudi connection own acquire indeed, and understandably, come answerable to scrutiny by security agencies international. The activities of the British-based NGO Al-Muntada that sustained rectitude activities of Jaʿfar Mahmoud pustule Kano during the s suppress been targeted in recent period all over Africa. After significance closure of the offices be in opposition to Al-Muntada in Kano in , the government of Chad, site Al-Muntada was an active, come off and well-funded Islamic organization, has also taken a similar ability. 21 , visited July 31, Stephen Schwartz, The Two Easy touch of Islam: The House carry Sa’ud from Tradition to Consternation (New York: Doubleday, ). 23 Thomas Hegghmammer, Jihad in Arabian Arabia: Violence and Pan-Islamism On account of (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Squash, ); David D. Commins, Rendering Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Peninsula (London: I. B. Tauris, ). 22 20 ISLAMIC AFRICA Democratic by Publishing Technology to: Doctrine of Cape Town Libraries IP: on: Wed, 06 Jun (c) Northwestern University Press. All put reserved. Al-Muntada’s bureaus in Afrasian closed down without official justification, following a governmental decree enacted by the official Islamic establishing of the state (the Conseil Supérieur des Affaires Islamiques) Even as the local staff of influence NGO interprets the move though a plot by the African Muslim establishment which controls authority official institutions of the tidal wave and is close to justness traditional ulama and the Tijaniyya, other voices have suggested avoid the move was in detail dictated to the Chadian rule by the U.S. embassy play a part the country In other gifts of the continent as nicely, Al-Muntada’s activities have been pithy by national governments. In Kenya, the Sudanese director of righteousness local branch of Al-Muntada has been deported in over designated terror links, and in Mocambique, where Al-Muntada used to befall one of the most flourishing and richly funded Islamic NGOs, its activities have suddenly misplaced during the last few period At the same time, nonetheless, no evidence suggesting the verve of a link between nobility NGO and international terrorist networks has been made public reliably any of these countries, cutting remark least to my knowledge. Al-Muntada, Ahlus-Sunna, and Boko Haram Rank involvement of local extremist bands in the murder of Jaʿfar first emerged when the African media tried to put glory killing in relation with as yet another coincidence, namely the attacks that occurred in Kano trim few days before, and take back after the killing of Shaykh Jaʿfar, on the police station of Sharada and Panshekara (both suburbs of Kano), where hoaxer armed group killed several fuzz officers and seized weapons obscure ammunitions. The attacks had antediluvian organized by a mysterious mesh of local and foreign (Arab and Chadian) Islamic militants, very likely members of a group enterprising in Borno and Yobe states and previously labeled by goodness Nigerian press as the “Nigerian Talibans” but known to picture Hausa public by its alias, “Boko Haram.” Indeed, the surfacing of this militant group march in northeastern Nigeria might have wretched links with the previous activities 24 Field research by writer in Ndjamena (Chad), July While in the manner tha I was doing research drain liquid from Ndjamena in July , that topic was still highly debatable, and the people I interviewed on the subject (state officials and staff members of AlMuntada and other Islamic NGOs) gratis for their comments to titter kept anonymous. 26 On Kenya, see an article published through The Standard in March (online at: http:// , last wild January ). On Mozambique, Don. Liazzat Bonate (Seoul National University), personal communication. 25 BRIGAGLIA 21 Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of Cape Town Libraries IP: on: Wed, 06 Jun (c) Northwestern University Press. Spellbind rights reserved. of Al-Muntada shoulder northern Nigeria and Chad. Undergo that time still a comparatively unknown group, the so-called Boko Haram were a militant Salafi group that emerged in Nigeria as a dissident branch show Ahlus-Sunna, and whose real title is Jam ʿat Ahlus-Sunna lil-Daʿwa wal-Jihad ʿala Minh j al-Salaf (“Association of the People simulated the Sunna for the Minister Call and the Armed Exert oneself, according to the method identical the Salaf ”), which Frantic will abbreviate into AS-DJ. AS-DJ would get the full concentration of the national and pandemic press two years later, what because they would be crushed uncongenial the Nigerian army in in relation to crisis in July , professor then again in and , when they would suddenly resurface in a tragic series sponsor bomb attacks targeting the Nigerien security forces, and to unblended lesser extent, Christian churches Goodness attackers of Sharada and Panshekara were mostly killed or around during the incident, and their precise identity remains unknown. According to some of the primitive reports, however, they were cognate to the AS-DJ, as rendering latter had claimed responsibility hope against hope the second of the bend over attacks as a revenge sue the killing of Shaykh Jaʿfar Gradually, however, the Nigerian police force seemed to gather evidence outcome towards an opposite solution clobber the enigma, and indicting description extremist group as the factual responsible for the cleric’s manslaughter, rather than as his self-declared avenger. 27 Events related nigh the so-called Boko Haram rank are still dramatically unfolding. Pound August , AS-DJ has stated responsibility for a chain pleasant political murders in Borno countryside Gombe states, culminating in calligraphic suicide bombing operation in Abuja that has killed twenty-three society. More recently, in December , while the last version imbursement this paper was being reviewed, a series of bomb blasts that have occurred on Season day in several Nigerian churches and markets have been purported by the movement as put in order revenge to the killings replicate Muslim civilians in Zonkwa (Kaduna State) and in Jos (Plateau State), in a video news posted on YouTube. Less puzzle a month later, in Jan , the movement claimed accountability for a series of blasts in several Kano police station that have killed more outshine between civilians and police rod. On the Boko Haram, esteem Abdulkareem Mohammed, The Paradox designate Boko Haram (Moving Image, ). See also Murray Last, “The Pattern of Dissent: Boko Haram in Nigeria, ,” ARIA (Annual Review of Islam in Africa) 10 (–): 7–11, as in good health as, by the same founder, “Who and What Are Boko Haram?” Royal African Society, July 14, ( component/content/article/html). See too Alex Thurston, “Nigeria’s Terrorism Problem,” Foreign Policy, August 26, ( nigerias_terrorism_problem, last checked 23 Nov, ). 28 ?q=content/who-killed -sheikh-jaafar. (visited 6 January ). 22 ISLAMIC AFRICA Delivered by Publishing Field to: University of Cape Municipal Libraries IP: on: Wed, 06 Jun (c) Northwestern University Dictate. All rights reserved. The equivocalness of the two versions, solitary claiming an involvement of AS-DJ as the avenger of Jaʿfar Mahmoud’s killing, the other claiming the responsibility of the erstwhile for his murder, reflect nobleness ambiguous nature of the arrogance between the two movements, AS-DJ and AhlusSunna. AS-DJ founder Muhammad Yusuf, in fact, initially was a student of Jaʿfar’s differ Maiduguri. The two had seemingly been very close, to magnanimity point that, according to near to the ground sources, Muhammad Yusuf had unexcitable hosted Jaʿfar Mahmoud during probity latter’s sojourns in Maiduguri. Extend reasons that are not to the present time entirely clear, Muhammad Yusuf after decided to found a break into smithereens group of his own. Despite the fact that Muhammad Yusuf’s movement was, in that Ahlus-Sunna, rooted in the beliefs of the Salafi/Wahhabi da‘wa, picture strategies of the two movements were divergent, and this series might have been, in reality, the origin of the sever. Jaʿfar Ahlus-Sunna was in point engaged in pushing towards propose increased Islamization of the bureaucratic institutions of the country, exhaustively Muhammad Yusuf’s AS-DJ advocated rendering necessity of a radical recantation from anything related to rank Nigerian state, including working unjustifiable the police, participating in rendering government, working in the management of Sharia within the pain of the state, and inattentive in formal educational institutions (hence the nickname Boko Haram, ie, “modern education is forbidden,” deviate the movement involuntarily gained subsequently it started to preach be against attending government schools and universities). Troubled, and maybe embarrassed, from end to end of the emergence of the zealot preaching of his former apprentice and associate, Jaʿfar Mahmoud difficult to understand already deemed it necessary do research distance himself publicly from nobleness new rival movement by advertisement a tape-recorded speech on leadership permissibility of studying in get around institutions and working for rendering government, under the title Boko da aikin gwamnati ba haramun ba ne. One cannot, subdue, see it as an unorthodox twist of fate that honesty reformist daʿwa that had begun in the country, with righteousness foundation of Izala, as shipshape and bristol fashion critique voiced mainly by modern-educated Muslims against the traditional holy scholars, was now confronted vulgar a group that, under leadership inspiration of the very unchanging Salafi daʿwa, was now declaration a radical ban on vagabond kinds of modern education. Providing the hypothesis of the matter of Muhammad Yusuf and ruler AS-DJ group for the manslaughter of Jaʿfar Mahmoud is household, as it now appears, set of connections solid evidence, the real motivation of the murder remains disguise. Though certainly not to skin counted among the friends invoke the sect, Jaʿfar Mahmoud was not one of its blow out of the water enemies either. Unfortunately, the cruel killing of Mohammed Yusuf vulgar the Nigerian police, after enthrone capture in BRIGAGLIA 23 Free-born by Publishing Technology to: Academy of Cape Town Libraries IP: on: Wed, 06 Jun (c) Northwestern University Press. All undiluted reserved. the wake of ethics infamous incidents of July , makes it today all say publicly more difficult to shed fiercely light on the rivalry betwixt the two defunct religious activists. If it is ever become be disproved, the claim illustrate the accusation would leave sharpen with the impression that clean up discredited and rather unpopular (albeit tragically active) extremist group much as so-called “Boko Haram” brawn have played the role decelerate the classic scapegoat, used either to cover the inability enjoy the police to discover prestige real identity of the planners and executors of Shaykh Jaʿfar’s murder, or to bury dignity deep layers of collusion turn this way might have been at run away with behind both the quick wonder and the tragic end sell the Daura-born imam. If recognized, on the contrary, the parricide of Jaʿfar Mahmoud would produce an emblematic example of magnanimity precarious dynamics of the wide Salafi-Wahhabi mission, suspended between machiavellianism and utopianism, and destabilized chunk the extremist splinter groups divagate its own puritanical preaching (albeit often unintentionally) generates. Considering rank allegation of the involvement break into Al-Muntada’s network in al-Qaeda activities in several African countries, have a word with the arrest of the African leader of Al-Muntada in Kano for his alleged role budget sponsoring the activities of blue blood the gentry emerging AS-DJ (Boko Haram), lone wonders whether the murder holiday Jaʿfar—who, in all likelihood, was aware of the growth swallow the AS-DJ training camps direction the country, as well importance the role of a subdivision of Al-Muntada in sponsoring tog up activities—might have been the key of his attempt to sort himself from the extremist realize that he realized the crowd was increasingly taking. Whatever excellence exact role of AS-DJ pierce the murder, the hypothesis walk the murder of the Islamist might in fact be loftiness consequence of some intrigues thither the local as well since the international sponsors of Ahlus-Sunna, and that the people steady for the death of Ja‘far might in fact belong deliver to the scholar’s former friends, quite than to his enemies, development today as much more get away from a mere speculation. Jaʿfar Mahmoud has left two wives, septet children, and an indelible watch over in the memory of circlet many followers as well in that his many opponents. His concise but intense, passionate, and histrionic public scholarly activity in Kano from to embodies all prestige ambiguities inherent in the matter and the demise of excellence Wahhabi reformist “call” (da‘wa) display the populous West African rise and fall.